Imagining textual machines[1]
Graziella Tonfoni with James E. Richardson
Istituto di Glottologia, Universita di Bologna, Via Zamboni n.16, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Abstract:
This article introduces the concept of textual machines developed by Graziella Tonfoni. Textual machines are textual devices or engines in motion and they represent the cognitive processes that texts exhibit. Textual machines are revolutionary writing aids because once the kind of textual machine needed is visualized, it is easy to translate that insight into writing the text so that it accomplishes the same thing as the machine. The major part of this article describes and illustrates fourteen textual machines. The textual lens, for example, focuses directly on some information in a text and then expands and enlightens it. Some of the other textual machines presented in the article deal with more complicated processes, such as the selection and interpretation of information. The purpose of this article is to enable readers to gain awareness of their own cognitive processes by being able to visualize them through the various textual machines. This self-awareness results in a clearer analysis of the purpose of writing and the means to accomplish that purpose effectively.
1. Introduction
In order of increasing complexity, this article describes, illustrates and explains fourteen different textual machines which represent some of the cognitive processes that occur when one writes and reads text. These textual machines animate cognitive processes in a physical, mechanical way and they serve as :-revolutionary aids in helping one reflect on and rethink the pro-ceases of writing and reading. Users do not materially construct these machines themselves, but instead observe them perform in the virtual reality they inhabit. (Wooden prototypes of the textual machines have been constructed for demonstrations and workshops. These prototypes are based on the models developed by Graziella Tonfoni and are currently on exhibit at the architectu~al studio of Luigi Turrino and Paolo Pascale in Bologna, Italy.) As spectators in this virtual reality, users are given an opportunity to experience and reflect on the processes that occur in their minds as they write. As they imagine, visualize and experience the physical motion of the textual machines in their virtual reality, users gain understanding and insight into the complex, interconnected processes of writing and reading.
The term 'machine', as used in this article, means a device that allows users-by substituting either partially or totally their own activity with that of the device-to attain a result that is otherwise unattainable by their own efforts. 'Machine' also carries the meaning of a device for transforming or transmitting energy.
Textual machines model what one does when one writes and reads in the same way that a wheel models walking. (The concept of a textual machine is in the spirit of Marvin Minsky's The Society of Mind (Minsky 1986), in which he conceived of the mind as a powerful and complex machine. Textual machines are not practical tools, but rather metaphorical tools that help one understand in a physical, tangible way how some cognitive processes work.) The wheel does not simulate walking by copying the natural process-if it did, wheels would have feet that would simply move more rapidly than human feet. What the wheel does is to produce linear movement, which results in the same thing as walking. By interpreting walking as something that produces linear movement, the wheel models walking; it produces the same result as walking (albeit significantly enhanced), but in a mechanized way.
Similarly, textual machines model text processing, both in writing (the producing of text) and in reading (the receiving of text). They interpret what happens as one writes and reads, and they take these abstractions and put them into time and space where they can be experienced physically. This physical, material experience of writing and reading has been lost over time, but the textual machines recover it so that once again one can experience the physical sensation and fun of writing and reading.
By making the processes of writing and reading text physically visible, the textual machines also help one reflect on these activities. As one observes the textual machines in motion, one becomes a spectator, just as one is when seeing a play in a "heater. As a spectator, one adopts a frame of mind that enables one to see oneself through the textual machines and to rethink what one does when writing text and what the readers do when reading it.
Although the machines are standalone devices, it can also be imagined how they could be combined to produce many different complicated actions, which is what happens when one writes or reads. When this happens, different cognitive processes are activated through language. The material of text is always language, but it is shaped up differently according to the function of the text.
2. Machine for simple rotation of a word
The first machine is the machine for simple rotation of a word. This machine, which is shown in Figure 1, consists of a wheel with a hub that is free to rotate within the wheel. The rim of the wheel is divided by a series of equally spaced radial lines. The hub of the wheel provides a space for a single word. Each of the radial lines on the rim of the wheel contains another word or some attribute related to the word in the hub.
Figure 1: Machine for simple rotation of a word.
The word in the hub is free to rotate around the wheel so that it points to any word on the rim. The centered word can be envisioned as being written on an arrow so that as the word rotates, the head of the arrow points outward toward the words on the rim.
When the centered word points to another word, it creates the possibility of a word combination that is the starting point of a sentence. As the centered word is rotated, all the word combinations or suggested sentences can be added and then possibly a text that contains them can be created. The machine for simple rotation of a word represents a totally free and unconstrained process. It is the user's decision to choose the word to place in the hub of the wheel, as well as the words to place around the rim.
For example, one could place the word 'house' in the hub. Around the rim of the wheel one could also place other words freely associated with 'house' such as 'doors,' 'windows,' 'kitchen,' 'garden' and 'fireplace.' As 'house' is rotated around the wheel it points to an associated word such as 'fireplace', creating a possible combination of words that may suggest a sentence such as 'A glowing fire in the fireplace makes my house feel warm and safe. 'Rotating the word in the hub further around the wheel suggests other word combinations and sentences that may be organized into a text.
3. Machine for complex rotation of a word
The machine for complex rotation of a word is similar to the machine for simple rotation of a word, except that it includes another dimension and is constrained. Figure 2 shows the machine for complex rotation of a word.
Figure 2: Machine for complex rotation of a word.
The machine for complex rotation of a word has two parts, each of which occupies a specific dimension. The first part of the machine, which is in the horizontal dimension, consists of a wheel with a central hub. As in the machine for simple rotation of a word, the hub of the wheel accommodates a single word. The other part of the machine is in a vertical dimension and it resembles a wall that is divided into a set of distinct sections or spaces. The spaces on the vertical wall represent different elements or categories with which the word in the hub may be associated. These spaces are large because they can contain many items and possibilities. The elements or categories represented by the spaces can be arranged in any order and may include the following:
The vertical wall can be divided into as many categories as one wants and the categories can be of one's own choosing. Some of the categories may be more objective than others. Occurrences and antonyms, for instance, tend to be somewhat objective because they are lexical. On the other hand associations, properties and situations are more subjective. One can establish one's own mixture of objective and subjective categories. All the subjective categories may even be omitted and just the objective ones included. Once the categories are decided on, however, one has to keep them.
The word in the hub on the wheel can rotate, but only to the degree that its movement projects on the vertical wall and points to one of the categories on it. The categories constrain the rotation of the word, so that whenever the word is rotated they must be taken into account. As the word rotates and points to one of the sections, it triggers something in one's memory related to the category assigned to that section of the wall.
For example, as in the machine for simple rotation of a word, the word 'houses could be placed in the hub. One could also establish these five categories on the wall: adjectives, situations, associations, occurrences and antonyms. When 'house' is rotated and it points to the adjective category, 'large' might come to mind; when it points to the situation category, one might think 'the house on the hill'. The associations category could trigger 'happiness', while the occurrence category could cause one to respond with 'I need to paint my house.' For the antonyms category, one might think of the word 'homeless'.
4. Text motion machine
The word 'motion' is used in the sense of a proposal presented I in a formal assembly or a court of law. The name is a play on words since the machine moves text by rotating it to generate multiple proposals for completing a story. Figure 3 shows the text motion machine.
Figure 3: Text motion machine.
The text motion machine is composed of a pyramid that rotates on a horizontal base. The pyramid has triangular faces that each contain a memory text. A memory text is simply a text written about a personal experience in one's life and it is triggered by an initial story. A memory text usually starts with, 'This reminds me of . . .' The base upon which the pyramid rotates is divided into squares that contain alternative possible endings for the memory texts on the faces of the pyramid.
As the pyramid slowly rotates, it lights up certain squares on the base as the vertices of the pyramid touch them. The vertices of the pyramid contain the final sentence of the memory text on the triangular faces. When a square lights up, the text on it presents another possible development or ending of the memory text story.
The writer places both the memory texts on the pyramid faces and the alternative ending to them on the squares. The writer also controls which squares light up as the pyramid rotates. The reader merely observes what happens as the pyramid rotates. The reader reads the story on the triangular face of the pyramid. When a square lights up as a vertex touches it, the reader reads that square. In this way the reader is presented with a proposal for another possible ending. The reader is able to observe all the possible endings proposed as the pyramid rotates.
5. Textual lens
The textual lens is a unique kind of machine that has no moving parts. Instead, it consists of a transparent part and an opaque part. The transparent part is a thin plastic material that may be yellow or some other colon The opaque part is paper and it provides space outside the text that can be written on. The transparent, plastic part of a textual lens is superimposed over a word or sentence in the text on which one wants to focus. One then expands on it by writing adjectives, relative clauses or something else on the opaque, paper part of the lens. One of the features of the textual lens is that because it is simply superimposed, it can always be removed and the text restored as it was originally. One can, of course, take this idea and construct a computer program to accomplish the same result. Now let us look at the dynamics, function and possibilities of the textual lens.
A textual lens can have different shapes, depending on what part of the text one wants to focus and how one wishes to position the lens over the text. The shape of the lens is customized so that it highlights the portion of text one wants to select, provides the right amount of extra space needed for writing and does not cover up any of the original text.
Figure 4 illustrates various textual lens shapes. In the illustrations, both the text and the textual lenses are represented by rectangles. Textual lenses, however, are enclosed by thicker lines than the text. The shaded parts of the textual lenses are the transparent parts and their remaining parts are the paper on which one writes to expand the text. Text may be expanded in different ways; for example, by adding adjectives, by repeating something at a more abstract level or by providing an alternative.
Figure 4: Variously shaped textual lenses.
The textual lens illustrated as 'A' in Figure 4 is constructed so that the final word or sentence of the text can be expanded. The 'C' textual lens is a variation of this and it has a different configuration and orientation. The textual lenses in 'B'and 'E' have only a transparent part to highlight a word, sentence, paragraph or some other part of the text. The only difference between 'B'and 'E' is their size and where they are positioned over the text. These lenses indicate to readers that they should pay attention to the highlighted text and possibly expand it themselves.
The textual lens in 'D' enables the lower left edge of the original text to be highlighted and expanded. 'D' is similar to 'A' and 'C.' The lens in 'F' is different from all the others because it has paper parts above and below the highlighted text. This type of textual lens can be used to add alternatives to the highlighted text.
6. Wheel for text browsing
The wheel for text browsing, shown in Figure S, resembles a waterwheel. It is composed of a large wheel with bucket-like elements around its rim. An axle goes through the center of the wheel and is supported by brackets on a flat stand. The axle enables the wheel to be rotated by hand in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The bucket-like elements on the rim of the wheel contain the paragraphs of a text that have been created and readers can read through them by turning the wheel.
Figure 5: Wheel for text browsing.
Writers can make their own decisions about how they want readers to read their text. They can set the speed for browsing the text by allowing the wheel to move by itself at that speed. Alternatively, readers can freely determine the speed by moving the wheel themselves. Regardless of who determines the speed for browsing the text, since it is known that the wheel rotates both clockwise and counterclockwise, the direction must be determined for readers. This can be done by using arrows in the text.
To prepare the readers, a word or a sentence is written that is evocative or significant for the entire text on the round si' of the wheel. The title of a story may also be written. Par graphs of the text, which are those parts of the text that one h, decided to organize in a certain way, are placed on each of the bucket-like elements on the rim of the wheel in sequent) order from the upper part downward. When the wheel is rotated in the direction indicated, the paragraphs on these elements move one after the other so that readers can read them in sequence. A cognitive symbol may optionally be added 0 the bucket-like element at the beginning of each paragraph t, tell the reader what the writer intends to do in that paragraph
One purpose of this machine is to help the writer think about movement in reading. The speed of movement may be predetermined by the writer or left totally free. If it is free, the readers determine the speed and they turn the wheel with their, own hands according to how fast they read.
The wheel for text browsing is also intended to show how parts of the text move dynamically and how reading speed changes as one reads text. Readers do not always read at the same speed through all parts of a text. When readers are free to turn the wheel, they become particularly aware of their reading speed and know exactly when they are reading slow or fast. Even if the writer determines the speed, readers still experience the changes in the speed. When the speed is controlled, one becomes more reflective and must consider where the text can be read rapidly and where readers need to slow down, or where one wants them to slow down so that they pay close attention to the text.
The wheel for text browsing models the way one processes information as one reads. How fast one turns the wheel relates to the speed of one's reading and how much the text implicitly or explicitly conveys. The more implicit the text, the slower the reading and the slower the wheel is turned, because the readers need to fill in information that is missing but that their memory provides.
7. Carriage for memory text
The carriage for memory text consists of a pyramid with three wheels on each of the vertices of its triangular base. The three wheels swivel so that the machine can move in any direction, as Figure 6 illustrates.
Each wheel (a round object) contains a triggering, evocative word. Each of these evocative words triggers a text on one of the three lateral faces of the pyramid. The word is repeated at the top vertex of the lateral triangular face to which it relates so that the correspondence can easily be seen. For instance, if one wheel contains the word 'Fear', this would correspond to a personal story about 'Fear' on one of the lateral triangular faces. The word 'rear' would be at the top of this story so that the correspondence could be made. If another wheel contains the word 'Pleasure', a personal story about pleasure is included on another face of the pyramid and if the remaining wheel contains the word 'Anger', another personal story related to that concept is included in the remaining face. Each word triggers a set of memories in the writer's life related to that word or concept and the story written about it is included on one of the three lateral faces. The face that constitutes the base is always empty, because this face is not visible as the machine moves and it would be useless to write something on it.
Figure 6: Carriage for memory text.
The writer has two choices. First, a different word could be put on each of the wheels and therefore a different text on each of the faces. In this way, the reader knows exactly which wheel refers to which face and exactly what text was written as a result of the triggering from the wheel. Alternatively, the same word could be put on each of the three wheels. In this case, the writer doesn't need to repeat the word at the top of each of the faces because the three texts are related in the writer's memory to the same triggering word. For instance the word could be 'Danger' and the stories on the three triangular faces would all contain that idea.
The writer can also include cognitive symbols (such as those indicating definitions, descriptions and so on) on the wheels to show the style of the text on the lateral triangular faces. The cognitive symbols indicate the way the reader should receive the text. Once the readers see the cognitive symbols, they know that they should interpret a certain text as a description, narrative or some other specific type of text.
The readers are completely free to begin reading wherever they want. They can start from whatever wheel and in whichever direction they like and that decision determines the direction they move the machine, which can move freely in three directions. Texts are both related to each other and independent of each other. The machine therefore moves in various directions and may eventually become combined with other moving machines.
The carriage for memory text enables the writer to see the relationship between an evocative word and a story held in memory. It creates the possibility of seeing how the same word may trigger many stories about his or her life experiences. Similarly, readers are stimulated to find stories in their own lives. This process may entail some mirroring by readers about what the writer intended to mean and how that relates to their own personal experiences.
8. Carriage for explanatory text (simple)
This machine is shaped like a triangular prism. The two lateral faces constitute the writing spaces. There are two wheels on each of the lateral faces that allow the carriage to move. The carriage-and therefore the lateral faces of the triangular prism-are free to move from left to right and right to left. The lateral faces, which are rectangles, are like two pages of a notebook and the writer fills them up with explanatory text. The writer writes sentence after sentence from top to bottom, linearly across a face. When the end of one of the lateral faces is reached, writing continues at the top of the other lateral face. The writer numbers the lateral faces or puts arrows on them to indicate to the reader which is the first page of the text and which is the second page. Figure 7 shows the carriage for explanatory text in its simple form.
Figure 7: Carriage for explanatory text (simple).
Readers move around the carriage. They read the first page, then they move around and read the second page. To facilitate reading, the readers may move the machine left to right, which is the reading direction in our language. They may also move the machine right to left to move backwards or to move down to the next line. The faces of the carriage contain text that is written linearly and because the carriage has wheels the readers can move it more or less slowly, according to their reading speed.
The speed the readers move the carriage is determined by the easiness or difficulty they experience in absorbing information in the text. In other words, if the text is difficult because the readers are unfamiliar with the topic, they go slower. If they find reading easy, that means they are familiar with it and can move the carriage faster. By perceiving and experiencing their own speed in reading the specific explanatory text on the faces of the carriage, the readers are thus in charge of their acquisition of information and can control their learning process.
The writer can visualize this machine with a possible reader in mind, and can write text accordingly to facilitate the learning process. Moreover, writers can check how clear their writing is by observing how fast they or the readers move the machine. Readers can also use this machine to obtain a perception of how fast or slow they are reading so that they can evaluate their understanding and learning process.
9. Carriage for explanatory text (complex)
This machine, which is shown in Figure 8, has the same basic structure as the previous machine but it is more complex. It has three triangular-prism carriages-one large, one medium sized and one small. Each carriage fits over the ones smaller than it, like a set of progressively larger Chinese boxes. The three carriages move the same way as the single carriage in the simple form of the machine-they move on wheels from left to right and right to left.
Figure 8: Carriage for explanatory text (complex).
The two faces of the largest carriage contain a linearly constructed explanatory text. Sentence after sentence is written from top to bottom, linearly across a face. When writers come to the end of one of the lateral faces they continue at the top of the other. The writer numbers the lateral faces or puts arrows on them to indicate to the reader which is the first page of the text and which is the second page.
The writer follows the same procedure for each of the three carriages, but according to different criteria that relate to the size of the carriage. The writer organizes text for the same topic in three different ways. The largest carriage, which is the external one, contains the richest text-the text that is the most detailed, analytical and complete. This text thoroughly explains the topic to the reader. It requires the reader to know little about the topic and it is primarily aimed at the beginner. The internal carriages, the medium-sized one and the smallest one, correspond to synthesized versions of the text. The medium-sized carriage contains a synthesized text that is intended for a reader who knows something about the topic but is an intermediate learner. The smallest carriage contains the most synthesized version of the text. This text is for an advanced learner and it contains only enough information to remind the readers about what they already know.
The reading process may proceed in two ways. Readers can start from the largest, most external carriage that contains the most analytical text; since it is a linear explanatory text, they know how fast they are reading by how quickly they move the carriage. If at some point they realize that they know enough and are tired of reading all the details, they can get the second carriage out and start reading it. If they still find that they are reading things they already know, they can get the third, smallest carriage out. They do all this themselves and find the level of text that they need. If the readers are particularly diligent, they may read the text on all three carriages to see how quickly they can move through them. They may also do this if they want to reread the texts to verify that they know everything, or to solidify and reinforce their learning.
Readers can also proceed in another way. They can start from the smallest carriage to read the most synthesized text, proceed to the medium-sized carriage and then to the largest carriage that contains the most analytical text. When readers proceed this way, they are progressively getting more information and expanding their knowledge. In this case they have to think about their own needs and observe the way they relate to the text according to which carriage they are reading.
10. Three-floor rotation machine for poetry
This machine has a conic base. An axis through the top of the base supports two parallel disks. The disks are free to rotate in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction when turned by hand. The top disk is smaller than the bottom disk. This machine carries poetic text-evocative text created to trigger emotions and personal feelings. There is much freedom in the use of this machine, both in writing and reading. Reading can be left free or suggested. In other words, readers may be left totally free to do whatever they want or be directed to some particular way of reading. Figure 9 shows the three-floor rotation machine for poetry.
How is text distributed on this machine? The poetic text is written on the two disks and the surface of the cone. Each disk and the cone can contain a strophe (paragraph) of the poetic text, or the disks and cone can have the same text written on them in an extended or reduced way. The bottom of the conic base contains the title of the poem or keywords for interpreting it. The title or keywords are hidden so that one has to turn the whole machine upside down to see them.
There are two different modes in reading this machine. One mode is for readers to read the poetic text first by rotating the disks. Then, in order to read the title, which is the inspiring idea written on the base of the cone, readers turn the machine upside down. The other mode of reading is the reverse: readers first turn the machine upside down and read the title or keywords on the base, then they read the poetic text on the disks. The writer leaves readers free to decide the mode of reading, or may explicitly say what he or she wants readers to do. But since poetry is free and evocative, it is better to leave readers free to decide what they want to do. In this case, what writers can do if they want to direct readers is simply to give them some advice, but never really force them to do anything in particular. For example, the writer can recommend that readers do something, but also let them know that they are not obligated to follow the suggestion.
Figure 9: Three-floor rotation machine for poetry.
The title on the base of the cone may be brief or lengthy, as long as it is visible when the machine is turned over. Unlike in explanatory text where the title says what the text is about, the title or keywords for poetry just trigger the reader's memory. The round or circular shape of the machine is intended to evoke free associations in readers and to create a space for their emotions, personal feelings and unstructured thinking. The distribution of parts of the text on the disks creates a visual perception of the content of the poem and shows where breaks in it occur. Placing strophes or parts of the poems on the two disks automatically slows down the reading process and adds a kind of audible, intoned dimension to it that enhances its interpretation.
11. Machine for transferring text
The concept of transferring is derived from the Latin verb transferre, which means to bring across or transport. Transferring text deals with text globally and changes it all at once from one stage that exhibits one style into a second stage that exhibits another style.
The structure of the machine for transferring text is that of a drawbridge, as illustrated in Figure 10. There is a stationary vertical part that looks like the wall of a castle or fortress. The bridge-like part extends out from the bottom of the vertical part, hinged so that it can be raised or lowered by two strong ropes or chains. Like a drawbridge, the machine for transferring text has two distinct operational modes: open when the hinged part is horizontal and closed when the hinged part is vertical and touching the stationary part.
Some text is written on the vertical stationary part of the machine. The writer may place a cognitive symbol at the beginning of the text to signal the style of writing explicitly and visually, or alternatively simply include a sentence at the beginning of the text stating in what style the text is being written. For example, the writer might state 'This is going to be a descriptive texts and then proceed with writing.
All the text is written using only the one style indicated. For instance, the text might be a detailed description of how furniture is arranged in a room; every paragraph of the text would be descriptive and the text as a whole would then globally exhibit the same style.
Figure 10: Machine for transferring text.
The horizontal part of the machine provides a space for transferring the text on the vertical part into a different style. The topic of the text remains the same. As on the vertical part, the writer may include a cognitive symbol at the beginning of the text to indicate the particular style into which the text is being transferred. For example, if the vertical part contains a description of the arrangement of a room, on the horizontal part an explanatory text could be written that explains why the room has that particular arrangement. At the beginning of the horizontal part the writer could place the symbol for explain or simply write 'This is going to be an explanatory text.'
From the writer's perspective, the machine for transferring text shows how the same topic has been written about in two different styles. One experiences directly what it is like to start with the same information, organize it and write about it with two different attitudes. When one closes the machine by pulling up the horizontal part, one sees that the two texts touch each other and are united because they are about the same topic. The two texts are still distinct, however, because they have different styles and represent different kinds of knowledge organization.
The two distinctly different texts also create two different ways of reading. A descriptive text, for example, is read in a different way and with a different attitude than an explanatory text because of the expectations carried by these two text types. What readers see when they look at the machine is the same text written in two styles that may be explicitly indicated. In some cases, however, the writer may decide to include a cognitive symbol for only one of the texts, leaving it up to readers to figure out the style of the other. If the writer decides to do this, the readers will need to become more actively involved in looking for clues in this text to discover the writing intention.
12. Device for transforming text in phases
This device differs from the machine for transferring text in some important ways. The concept of transforming is derived from the Latin verb transforrnare, which means to change shape. Transforming text is different from transferring text in that it involves a process which takes place in multiple stages. Transformation is the process of modifying text paragraph by paragraph. It is a slow, gradual process that deals locally with only one part of the text at a time. This model is called a device instead of a machine since movement takes place on the writer's and reader's side, not within the model itself.
Figure l l shows the device for transforming text in phases. This device is composed of an initial text, which appears in the foreground (bottom of the illustration) and a final version of the text, which appears further away in the background (top of the illustration). The initial and final versions of the text are connected by a rope through a series of posts.
Figure 11: Device for transforming text in phases.
The initial text is written in paragraph form and placed in the foreground. The paragraphs are visually distinct divisions of the text. This initial text is the point of departure for the transformation process. From the initial text a series of equally-spaced posts is placed that ultimately leads to some point in the distance where the final version of the text rests. The posts connect the initial and final versions of the text and create a path in space between them.
Each post has instructions for changing the style of a particular paragraph in the initial text. Together the posts form a set of instructions for modifying the initial text in phases. For instance, the first post could instruct the writer to make the first paragraph of the initial text descriptive; the second post might indicate that the second paragraph needs to be changed to an analytical style. The instructions on the posts could also include a cognitive symbol that would visually convey the type of style change needed.
The number of phased changes that the original text undergoes in its transformation depends on the number of posts. If, for example, the initial text contains four paragraphs and there are just two posts, there would be only two modifications made to the text, each in the specified paragraph. On the other hand, if there are four posts, each of the paragraphs would be modified and there would be four distinct changes made.
The instructions on the posts allow the writer to change the initial text paragraph-by-paragraph in a progressive, localized manner. The writer is in fact the one who establishes the posts and their instructions, so in that way is self-led through a rewriting process that begins with the initial text and ends with its final version.
Readers of the text are invited to move around in the space of the device and to read the initial text, the instructions on the posts for progressively modifying it and the final version of the text. walking around in the space of the device has the effect of leading readers through the same process that the writer went through as the text was modified. By doing this, readers understand how the final text was generated. They comprehend how the writer conceived of modifications to the initial text and they see the process in all of its stages. When readers grasp what the writer was doing, some of them may want to establish their own posts and create a different path from the initial text to their own version of the text.
13. Focusing machine
This machine consists of a flat table that contains text. The table is fixed to a platform and raised above it. To the left of the table there is a vertical rod that has a horizontal arm with a triangular pointer. The vertical rod is attached to a small carriage. The underneath part of the carriage has a key that fits into a track on the platform. The key on the carriage and the track on the platform allow the vertical rod to move up or down across the lines of the text on the table. The horizontal arm can be adjusted up or down on the vertical rod so that it can be positioned closer to or further away from the text. The triangular pointer freely slides back and forth along the horizontal arm, in the direction of the lines of text on the table. By moving the vertical rod, adjusting the height of the horizontal arm and sliding the pointer, it is possible to position the pointer on-and actually touch-any word, sentence or other part of the text on the table. Figure 12 shows the focusing machine.
Figure 12: Focusing machine.
The writer places the paper with the text on the table and may then attempt to say on what the reader should focus; for example, 'I gave you this text and I want you to focus on this word.' The writer then moves the vertical rod, horizontal arm and triangular pointer so that the pointer touches the word. (If the pointer does not cover all of the text on which the writer wants the reader to focus, a box can be drawn around the appropriate portion of the text, or it can be underlined.) In this way, the writer physically and directly indicates the word or words to which the reader needs to pay attention. If there is another word or words that the writer also wants the reader to focus on, the pointer may be repositioned on another part of the text.
Once the reader focuses on the part of the text that the writer indicates, the reader can also move the pointer and find a different textual element to which attention should be drawn. The pointer is left in a new position on that element, ready for the next reader to come in and interact with the text. The attention of subsequent readers is drawn to the previous reader's focus and then they are also free to move the pointer to another part of the text that corresponds to their own interest and focus. This process may continue successively through a whole line of readers, each of whom is drawn first to the predecessor's point of focus and then contributes his or her own point of focus.
During all of this the writer observes the readers and their focusing, and may choose to intervene at some point or simply allow the readers total freedom in focusing on whatever they want. As writers reflect on what is happening, they come to understand the importance of focusing in writing and reading. They see in a material, physical way how people focus differently on the same text. They focus differently because they are different individuals with different backgrounds, interests and needs.
14. Machine for producing ideas and turning them into text
This is quite a complex machine. It has two basic parts, as can be seen in Figure 13. The part on the left consists of a wheel that is fumed by a crank. The other part of the machine is composed of a vertical post with a horizontally cantilevered arm, a pulley, a lever and a rectangle. The pulley is attached to the right end of the arm. The left end of the lever is attached to the post by a pin so that the right end pivots up and down. The rectangle hangs down from the right end of the lever on a wire. A rope goes from the wheel on the left, through a hole in the post, around the pulley and is attached to the free end of the lever. When the crank is turned, the energy it generates is transmitted through the rope and moves the lever and the rectangle up or down.
What does this complicated structure represent? The originating wheel, which is a round object, contains a word or words that are evocative. These words (ideas) represent the initial state of the creative process. They initiate the creative act and the processes of thinking, figuring out and planning a text. These ideas are the preliminary inspiration for creasing a text.
Figure 13: Machine for producing ideas and turning them into text.
The originating wheel may contain several ideas but only a few of them pass through to the other pert of the machine (the part with vertical post and horizontal arm) and attach themselves to the pulley. The ideas attached to the pulley then turn into the text on the rectangle. When the machine is set into motion by cranking the originating wheel, energy is produced and is transmitted to the other parts of the machine. This flow of energy through the machine models the processes of getting an initial inspiration, working out ideas, selecting some of them and then converting them into a text.
The originating wheel represents a whole set of ideas generated by brainstorming and free association. The pulley represents the processes of selecting some of those ideas, focusing on them in order to elaborate them and finally turning them into text. The rectangle contains the text. This text is linear and it is the result of selecting and focusing on only those ideas attached to the pulley. This is what is meant by turning ideas into text.
Thus there are three steps in this machine's operations. First, the originating wheel contains words triggered by the free association; it stimulates the production of more thoughts, words and ideas. As a result of selecting and focusing on just a few elements and not everything on the originating wheel, some ideas pass through to the pulley, which is another round object. Finally, by expanding and linearly organizing those ideas that were selected and attached to the pulley, the rectangle is filled with text.
The writer activates the machine and is the protagonist of the processes it models. The machine facilitates the writer's self-reflection and self-awareness of what happens when some ideas are selected out of an initial set of ideas and then worked out in a text. The brainstorming phase, the initial step of the process, is not linear. The writer may have many ideas bumping around in his or her mind in a way that is unorganized and these brainstormed ideas only become organized into text afterwards. For example, through brainstorming and free association, the writer may come up with some ideas such as 'justice', 'peace' and 'freedom', but by selecting 'justice', focusing only on that idea and expanding it, a linear, organized text may be developed. The machine makes these processes visible to the writer so that he or she is able to reflect on them more easily and gain insight into how ideas are shaped into text.
This is a spectacular machine, in the sense that the writer positions the machine in front of readers and the readers are spectators of the machine's complex operation. The writer is the protagonist. Readers do not direct the machine's operation because that is already done by the writer. They may decide, however, which part or parts of the machine they want to observe and get closer to and actually touch; for instance, they may read only the words on the pulley and the text on the rectangle. On the other hand, they may additionally trace back to the words on the originating wheel and see the more extended set of words from which the selected words came.
15. Textual catapult
The textual catapult, shown in Figure 14, is modeled after an ancient war machine. Catapults could hurl stones or other objects considerable distances with great force. They were developed by the ancient Greeks as siege machines to overcome walls or other barriers. They were moved into position, loaded and then released. If all went well, the hurled stone would strike its target. The catapult's original design of a throwing lever mounted on a wheeled platform remained basically unchanged through the conquests of the Roman Empire and the battles of medieval Europe.
Figure l4: Textual catapult.
In the case of the textual catapult, the vertical wall contains a linearly written text (of any kind, not just a specific type), containing a missing element. This missing element, which is shown by an outlined rectangle or some other visual sign on the textual wall, may be a word or an adjective.
Instead of a stone the textual catapult throws a linguistic element (a word or adjective) at the wall. The trajectory of the linguistic element thrown by the catapult is crucial and must be planned. The linguistic element hurled by the textual catapult must hit the wall and not go over it. The textual catapult has to be positioned so that when it is released, the linguistic projectile hits the target of the missing element in the text on the wall.
The position of the catapult is crucial and it relates to the context and syntax of the missing element. Since the writer is the one who wrote the text on the vertical wall, the writer is also the one who determines how the catapult has to be positioned so that the trajectory of the word or adjective launched by it is exactly right. The correct position of the catapult can be determined from clues in the text around the missing element.
There are two possible ways the writer can use the catapult. If the missing element is already known, it can be put on the catapult and launched, and the text is completed by the writer. The reader in this case is simply a spectator. The other way the writer can use the catapult is to position it, but instead of loading a word in it, leave it up to the reader to find one and place it on the catapult. The reader is able to find the word by reading the text and through the expectation that the text creates. Once the reader finds the word, it is loaded onto the catapult and released. The word hits its target (the missing element in the text) because the writer has already moved the catapult into the position that produces the correct trajectory. The missing element cannot go into just any place in the text, but only into the precise place that is empty and which is decided by the writer.
This machine enables one to visualize the process of text completion when there is a missing element that can be filled in, based on the context, which is the expectation that the text creates and the information already present in the text. The context helps the reader or writer complete the text. The catapult can be directly guided by the writer, or the writer can leave it open and see what the reader does.
16. Summary
The machines presented in this article may operate altogether in a theater simultaneously. They create a play of our mind that shows the wonderful way we are able to use language in writing and reading text. Seeing these machines operate makes one aware of the different possibilities available on a cognitive level. They help one visualize and reflect on how to go from simple cognitive processes to those that are more complex as one creates and revises text.
Reference
MINSKY, M. (1986) The Society of Mind. Simon & Schuster, New York.
Further reading
MEALING. S. and M. YAZDANI ( 1990) A computer-based iconic language, Intelligent Tutoring Media, 1(3), 133-136.
SCHANK, R. C. (1985) The Cognitive Computer: On Language, Learning and Artificial Intelligence. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
SCHANK, R.C. (1988) The Creative Attitude: Learning to Ask and Answer the Right Questions. Macmillan, New York.
TONFONI, G. ( 1991 ) La Scrittura multimediale: Tecniche di progettazione e design testuale (Multimedia Writing: Textual Design and Architectunng). Pagus, Treviso.
TONFONI, G. and R. DOYLE ( 1984) Understanding Text through Summarization and Analogy. Cambridge, MA: MlT Technical Report716.
WINSTON, P.H. (1992) Artificial Intelligence Handbook. AddisonWesley, Reading, MA.
The authors
Graziella Tonfoni
Dr Graziella Tonfoni is the author of the Communicative Positioning Program (CPP) methodology and the Director of the CPP Project at the University of Bologna, Italy, where she also teaches in the Linguistics Department. She is internationally known for her contributions to textual theory, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, communications, training and multimedia education. She has been a visiting scholar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University and Bolt Beranek and Newman. In addition, she has given seminars and lectures at the University of California at Berkeley, Stanford Research Institute, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Institute for Learning Science at Northwestern University and other institutions.
James E. Richardson
James E. Richardson is the author of Mastering Dollars and Sense on the Macintosh (Scott Foresman Professional Books, 1991). He has written how-to booklets, software users' guides and reference manuals and technical training materials for fifteen years. He was co-author of the user's guide for the first widely used financial management program for personal computers. Recently he wrote a set of volumes to accompany a forms-design software product that incorporates a new, patented technology, graphics intelligence. Mr Richardson has authored booklets and guides for Alisa Systems, Arrays Inc., Monogram Software, Softview and several other companies. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in physics from the University of Southern California and Master of Divinity and Master of Theology degrees from Fuller Theological Seminary.